East Central Elementary School

Chapter 18--The Last Works

Mozart's last works are categorized into instrumental works, the last operas, and the Requiem.  As I have already discussed the instrumental works and the operas, I will focus on the Requiem.

Analysis of the surviving Requiem manuscripts has established beyond reasonable doubt the amount of the Requiem Mozart actually composed.  There were sketches which Mozart laid out--two have survived.  He began laying out the full score by completing the voice parts.  Sussmayr composed the finishing touches, and tried to stay with Mozart's style.  The Lacrimosa may well be the last part of composing Mozart did.

Chapter 19--Aftermath

Mozart was a famous composer in his own lifetime.  Much has been made of his death in poverty and obscurity.  His reputation soared after his death, but he was the first composer to remain permanently lodged in the minds of not only practising musicians but also the musical public.  Scholars continue to research Mozart's life, analyse his music, and try to gain insight into his personality.  In the recent shift toward historically informed performance, causes us to wonder if we are actually hearing the music as Mozart would have performed it.  We are actually hearing his music with all that has been written since influencing both performer and hearer.  Modern instruments will not allow some of the "organic" forms to be played as they were.  All is infiltrated by modern musicians, modern technology, modern ears.  I wonder what Mozart would say if he could hear his music today!

Chapter 12--Singspiel

Mozart would not usually be classified as a nationalist composer; most of his vocal works are in Latin or Italian.  Several times, however, he wrote in German.  At the time, German texts were found in Singspiel, which is German opera with spoken dialogue.  However, after writing Bastien und Bastienne, he wrote only two more German operas.

Mozart used "melodrama," delivering speech punctuated by music (speech through music).  One of his German operas, Zaide, used melodrama.  A few passages of Die Entfuhrung use melodrama, as well.  One of the famous quotes from the emperor to Mozart comes from a performance of this particular opera:  "Too many notes, my dear Mozart."  Sometimes it is still accused of too many notes, and of excessive diversity of style, as well.  However, this opera made Mozart famous all over Germany.

Chapter 13--The Land of the Clavier

This chapter discusses Mozart's piano concertos and piano chamber music.  His mature works of these genre were central to his economic being in the early years.  They were unprecedented in orchestral sensitivity, formal inventiveness, and in an inexhaustible variety of mood.  His first concertos were arrangements of sonatas.  He even used a sonata by J.S. Bach!

A bulk of this chapter deals with analysis of the concertos.  One of the performance considerations have to do with the cadenzas.  While we do not know what he would have played in performance, we must assume that what we do have from his manuscripts correspond to the style of his improvisations.  Most likely, he didn't confine himself to the notated piano part, but would have improvised on the spot. 

Some of Mozart's most engaging music are the keyboard pieces, written to please the public.  Piano chamber music larger than a trio was rare until Mozart provided models balancing concertante elements with strong individual contributions from the melodic instruments.  He wrote a piano quartet, but it was not a popular sale.  A more popular ensemble of the time was the piano trio.  Mozart wrote several of these, and his trio in G, written seventeen years later is wonderful.

Chapter 14--Vienna and Prague, 1785-1788

Leopold returned to Salzburg at the end of April, 1785, and never saw his son again.  In June, Nannerl came home to deliver her child:  'little Leopold' stayed with his grandfather while she returned to her husband and stepchildren.  This was done to assure the child better health in a town with better facilities. 

The first known "begging" letter written by Mozart was addressed to Hoffmeister in November of 1785.  He requested an advance payment against work to be delivered.  When Leopold was in Vienna, Mozart was earning well from performances and teaching.  Mozart took pride in his appearance and might even have been a bit vain.  It was necessary to be well dressed if he was to gain income as a freelance musician.  If he looked shabby, he would have not been welcomed into the finer homes.  His daily routine consisted of rising early, working on an composition while waiting for a barber to arrange and powder his hair.

There are many unknowns about Mozart's income and expenses.  We have no record of payments.  He took in a prodigy, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, into his home.  We don't know how much income he received for this arrangement.  We also we do not know how much money he wasted, although I've heard all my life how he wasted money on booze.  Expenses such as transportation, hairdressing, good clothes, and servants were necessary, as were doctors, rent, food, and drink.  We don't have any record of him gambling.  However, he was unable to make enough to save.  When his income was low, expenses were not, so he borrowed.

In 1785, he was composing at his best.  Sonatas, piano quartets, concertos, songs, and music for violin are found in this era.  He suffered a decline in concert-giving.  Perhaps he was unable to sustain public interest when the economy was on the decline in Austria.  He reappeared as a dramatic composer with the great opera, La folle journee ou Le Mariage de Figaro, and Le nozze di Figaro.  Also followed was Le Barbier de Seville. 

The reception fo Figaro is a subject of controversy.  The play has been read as presaging the French Revolution.  From this it has been deducted that the Vienese aristocracy were offended and therefore boycotted Mozart's concerts.  However, we know that it was initially enthusiastically received, but that after the third performance, the emperor banned the repetition of ensembles in the long opera.

In November 1786, the Mozarts lost their third son, Johann Thomas Leopold, in a cot-death.  Mozart's grief does not show up in his music.  His music was calculated equally to delight the connoisseur and the amateur. 

In 1787, Mozart leaves for Prague.  He was summoned there to witness the triumph of Figaro.  He wrote to Jacquin:  "I was very delighted to see everyone leaping about in sheer delight to the music of my Figaro, adapted as noisy contredanses and German dances; for here they talk of nothing but--Figaro; nothing is played, blown, sung, or whistled but--Figaro; no opera is enjoyed as much as--Figaro and eternally Figaro...."

In April of 1787, he learned that Leopold was seriously ill.  He died, May 28th.  He did not go to Salzburg to see his father, but Leopold did not summon him, perhaps out of pride, but also maybe was unaware of his impending death.  Mozart himself was not well, having recurrence of what may have been his fatal weakness, a complaint of the kidneys. 

Beethoven's mother's death may have prevented the two composers from ever meeting other than briefly.  Reports from Beethoven's pupils are contradictory.  The impact of Leopold's death on Mozart is speculative.  He inherited a mere 1000 gulden from his father. 

It was in the same year that he composed the great serenade, Eine Kleine Nachtmuzik.  We don't know the purpose of this composition, but perhaps it was written for entertainments in Prague.  It only has four movements, but is one of his most famous pieces.

Constanze was again pregnant, so she and Mozart left Prague in October.  He was working on Don Giovanni at the time.  The opera appealed less in Vienna than in Prague.  He also had many competitors for the public's eye.  Mozart wrote his three last symponies in '88.  Unfortunately, we don't know how well these pieces were received.  After his death, however, they were soon established as a touchstone of symphonic mastery.

Chapter 15--Chamber Music

This chapter discusses the chamber music that Mozart wrote.  String quartets, horn quintets, string trio, the Prussian quartets (written for the King of Prussia), and the clarinet quintet are examples.  Analysis of each is discussed here.

Chapter 16--Opera Buffa

Mozart's central place in the world of opera rests mainly on the three works with libretti by Lorenzo da Ponte.  When he wrote Figaro, he had not finished an opera buffa for over ten years.  This chapter tells about both Figaro and Don Giovanni.  I believe Mozart's operas to be his finest music.  Many cartoons have employed his music for it is so dramatic (check "Tom and Jerry"!).

Chapter 17--The Last Years, 1788-1791

Mozart's music was criticized for overelaborate orchestration.  He was struggling this time for concerts.  He hoped for a trip to London.  In 1789 he tried to obtain subscriptions for a concert series.   He wrote Puchberg, claiming to expect income from the subscription sale of the large and difficult string quartets of early '87.  He asked for a loan in '88 (1,000 gulden), but Puchberg only sent 200.  Puchberg was one of Mozart's Masonic brothers, and we do not know who else he was writing for money.  He was preparing to travel and needed funds for the trip. 

Again, the economy could have worsened his financial problems.  The deteriorating political situation caused economic hardship for those in Austria.  Mozart could not go on drifting in a circle of debts, repayments, and ever more meagre lodgings, while struggling to meet household and medical expenses.  He therefore visited Protestant North Germany.  His productivity was lower than usual.  He wrote a few dances on the trip, but none of his instrumental works would have been known there.  In April, he left Vienna, traveling with Count Karl Lichnowsky.  Lichnowsky must have loaned him money for later there was a lawsuit against Mozart by Lichnowsky for over 1,400 gulden. 

In Prague, Mozart met his old friends.  Mozart played for Friedrich Wilhelm II in Berlin.  Nevertheless, he continued to suffer his financial woes.  When he returned to Vienna, he was confronted with major expenses arising from Constanze's skin disease; she was so ill that he feared she might die.  On the recommendation of Dr. Closset, she went to bathe in the sulphurous waters of Baden. Mozart had to remain in Vienna; he urges her not to be jealous, and to behave herself modestly in the stylish company at the watering-place.  Their fourth child was born, but she died the same day.

Cosi fan tutte was written in 1790.  Mozart invited Puchberg and Joseph Haydn to a rehearsal.  But Joseph II died in mid-February.  Leopold II realized Mozart's value and continued his stipend.  In 1790, his productivity was at its lowest, partially because both he and Constanze were ill.  However, his health improved enough for him to travel abroad.  He traveled to Frankfurtam-Main in October.  He hoped to impress Leopold II by his attendance at the coronation.  He pawned his silver (which was never redeemed) for a coach.  Constanze handled another loan of 1,000 gulden from a merchant.  During his absence, Constanze had removed to the Rauhensteingasse, where the rent, 330 gulden, was lower than the Domgasse, but hardly cheap.  Mozart was invited to London to write operas for the Pantheon.  Perhaps health, perhaps debt, or perhaps new possibilities in Vienna led Mozart to decline.

1791 looked better.  He was preappointed without salary to help the ailing Leopold Hoffman as organist at St. Stephen's cathedral.  In her petition for a pension, Constanze referred to an income guaranteed by patrons in Hungary and Holland, in exchange for new compositions.  Perhaps he received part of this income, because she had fewer debts than would have been thought after his death.  During his last year, he began again writing more. 

The summer months are highlighted by the last letters from Mozart to Constanze.  She was again pregnant, and spending time in Baden for the cure.  He visited her when he could.  Mozart was hard at work at this time on the opera, Die Zauberflote.  He composed in a summerhouse attached to Schikaneder's theatre.  Mozart was much in demand and was working overtime in the summer of '91.  Constanze returned to Vienna before her son was born.  Franz Xaver Wolfgang was born on the 26th of July.

Work on Mozart's Requiem was delayed by 'Laut verkunde unsre Freude', but then it became the focus of the remaining compositional energies.  Constanze remembered taking the score away to force him to rest.  She alleged that six months before his death, on an outing to the Prater, Mozart spoke of being poisoned; but at the reveant period Constanze was in Baden.  Perhaps the conversation took place six weeks prior to his death, rather than six months.  There is no reason, in any case, to trust Mozart's own diagnosis.  By autumn, he had evidently recovered from this paranoia.  In November, there was an epidemic of "military fever" in Vienna.  He may have contacted the fever at the Lodge.  His constitution was not robust and earlier episodes of illness may have contributed to his condition becoming rapidly critical.  His body was swollen, but his mind remained clear.  Dr. Closeet applied a cold compress which caused Mozart to lose consciousness, and death followed in the first hour of December 5.  His burial two days later, on a day of mild, damp weather, followed the austere condition of the time for one neither a pauper, nor rich:  a simple ceremony and rapid disposal of the remains.

Chapter 11--Vienna, 1781-1785

When Mozart and his father left Munich, they were separated by the Archbishop.  Leopold went home to Salzburg, and Mozart went to Vienna to serve as Konzertmeister, composer, and keyboard player.  Although Mozart requested to return to his father, Collerodo's attitude was feudal--he didn't care how his servants felt about the menial work he gave them.  Mozart's indignation was apparent in all his letters--his menial status frustrated him greatly.  He was plotting his escape from the start.  He tried to get a position at court, but there were no vacancies.  Then, his plan was to sell his compositions and teach, but teach only the wealthy.  He forgot the royalty left Vienna for the country in the summer.  Once freed from servitude, he would give concerts.  He made many acquaintances among the wealthy, who welcomed him into their homes as a gifted performer and entertaining guest.  He also hoped to get another opera commission, which never happened.  Leopold urged his son to be sensible and return to Salzburg.  Mozart's insubordinate attitude got him fired in May.  The Archbishop held his formal petition for release; Mozart was furious but fired indeed.

The Weber family moved to Vienna near St. Peter's Church.  Aloysia had gotten married.  She married an actor who was also a painter, Joseph Lange, who later painted the unfinished portrait that is considered to be Mozart's best likeness.  Gossip about Mozart and Constanze Weber were floating around at this time.

Mozart worked hard to realise his intention to support himself on a freelance basis.  In addition to violin sonatas he published and piano sonatas, he continued to pursue an opera libretto.  With librettist Stephanie, he began working on Die Entfuhrung aus dem Serail.

During 1782, Mozart was busy with keyboard projects that maintained him over the next three years.  He began to believe that he might support himself by piano playing.  He was thrust into competition with Muzio Clementi who was a generous foe, but Mozart sneered in letters to Leopold that Clementi was merely a mechanic, lacking in taste.  For most of the 1780s, Mozart was considered the finest keyboard player in Vienna.  He could play for hours for wealthy patrons.

In December 1781, Mozart finally admitted to his father that he was to marry Constanze Weber.  Her mother tried to force him into marriage with her, but Constanze tore up the agreement he'd finally signed, because she said she trusted him.  He admitted that she was not pretty but insisted that she was sensible.  They married on August 4, 1782.  Constanze was not the weatherbrain legends spin about her, but she managed his estate competently.  Constanze gave birth to their first child, Raimund Leopold Mozart, on June 17, 1783.  Six weeks later, the couple left for Salzburg, leaving Raimund with a wet nurse.

The visit lasted from July to October.  We do not know what reception the couple received from Nannerl and Leopold.  Perhaps the atmosphere was strained at times, but music continued to be composed and performed.  When they returned to Vienna, they found that their infant son had died.  A new pregnancy soon followed. 

On August 23, 1784, Nannerl became the third wife of a government official.  She moved to St. Gilgen.  Leopold kept in constant touch with her and reported on the 14th of September that her brother had been very ill with rheumatic fever.  Constanze gave birth to their second child, Carl Thomas, who was properly cared for and lived into adulthood.  The same year, Mozart was admitted to the Freemasons' Lodge.

Masonry is not a religions, although it was deist, and it was unfairly suspected of hostility to the Catholic Church.  Mozart took and interest in philosophical approaches to understanding his place on earth.  Mozart was very dedicated to the masonry.  The nature of the relationship between his Masonic leanings and his music remains a bit cloudy.

Leopold visited Mozart in Vienna in 1785.  He heard most of Mozart's music in Vienna in its original form.  Joseph Haydn also visited and Mozart wrote string quartets and dedicated them to him.  Haydn was most pleased and praised Mozart to Leopold and is reported as saying:  "Before God and as an honest man I tell you that your son is the greatest composer known to me either in person or by name.  He has taste and, what is more, the most profound knowledge of composition."

Chapter Eight--The 'Classical' Style

This chapter covers the keyboard music of Mozart.  Although he had learned to play on the harpsichord, he preferred the piano, which was a relatively new instrument.  Sometimes he composed at the keyboard, developing his technique as well as composing.  When he wrote down the keyboard music, he fixed a version of the music so that others, such as Nannerl, could also play them, or so that he could sell them.  Unfortunately, we have lost some of the improvisations that he composed, simply because they were never written down.  We cannot say how closely notated works correspond to what his amazed audiences may have thought he plucked out of the air.  Samples from his piano works, as well as those for piano and violin are included and analyzed in this chapter.

 Chapter Nine--Salzburg and Munich, 1779-1781

In January 1779, Mozart set off for home.  He resisted going to Salzburg because of how he felt it limited his composing and opportunities for recognition.  Leopold secured an appointment for him to succeed Adlgasser with the condition that he compose more music than his predecessor.  Even though he was unhappy in Salzburg, he composed some of his finest works during this stay.  He completed his great Mass in C and supplied full Vesper settings for the cathedral.  During this tenure, he was organist at the cathedral as well.  He became a master as a composer for the orchestra.

Munich offered Mozart a commission to write a serious opera on the grandest scale.  He wrote and produced Idomeneo.  The orchestra writing is a crowning glory for this work.  Despite its greatness, there were only three performances of the opera.  This gave him the reputation of favoring the orchestra at the expense of the voices, although most performers enjoy his operas today.

Chapter Ten--Orchestral Music

Mozart's symphonies and other orchestral works are discussed in this chapter.  He was delighted with the full sound of the orchestra which included flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, horns, trumpets, and drums, as well as the string family.  The symphonies of 1773-1774 are the last he composed in bulk. 

The piano concertos are some of my favorites.  The progress of his concertos parallels that of his symphonies.  Some have three movements, some have four.  In all his concertos, he treats the soloist with care, providing melodic opportunities and the chance to show off.

Chapter Six--Sacred Music

Most of Mozart's sacred music was written in Salzburg.  Not only were there masses, but also instrumental pieces written for the church.  Most of the masses were short, as per the archbishop's reforms.  This chapter deals with the different masses which Mozart wrote and discusses the styles and compositional techniques he employed in his compositions. 

Chapter Seven--Mannheim and Paris, 1777-1779

If Mozart hadn't had such high ambitions, he could have made a modest living in Salzburg.  He most missed the chance to write operas.  After being fired by the archbishop, he made his way as a keyboard player and instrumental composer.  Leopold was retained by the archbishop, but Mozart set off in September with his mother who had mostly avoided the hardships of travel since 1770.  She was not a forceful character, and because she was a woman, she could not keep a tight reign on her son.  Leopold attempted to exert control through letters which he sent along the way.  The letters took several days to arrive.  Mozart's replies usually crossed the new letters from his father in the mail.  Wolfgang ran the trip as best he could.  He was driven by the notion (which of course was accurate) that he was superior to contemporaries, but they did not see it.  Mozart also had a great lack of tact. 

Leopold wanted his son to find a better patron in Germany.  Mozart wanted to try one of the great music capitals.  Vienna was resistant, and that left Paris and London.  At first, he made real effort to be hired in Munich, but he ran into his old friend, Myslivecek, who was seriously ill with syphilis.  While trying to cover the travel expenses with a concert and lessons, Mozart was unable to impress the court.  Of course, he might have insulted just as many, as well.

Mozart moved onto Mannheim--against his father's wishes.  This was the first rebellion.  While there, he fell in love with Aloysia Wendling.  Of course, his elaborate plan that she would help him conquer Italy, horrified Leopold.

Winter weather kept Mozart and his mother in Mannheim.  Mozart had plenty of time to compose.  He did receive some small commissions, but he was not paid very much for them. 

The Mozarts reached Paris in March of 1778.  There was a war of words between the French opera and the Italian opera.  Mozart, of course, would eventually assimilate the French style with the Italian.  No one asked him to try in Paris.  He did take some pupils at this time, but most of the time, he was struggling for money.

Mozart's mother complained that she rarely left their chilly lodgings.  She became seriously ill.  There are legends that Mozart let her die unattended.  She actually saw a priest and received extreme unction before falling into delirium, dying unconscious in the presence of her son, a nurse, and a friend.  She had insisted upon having a German doctor attend to her, which delayed medical treatment she very much had needed.  Her friend found one, but she deteriorated anyway with a fever they could not treat.  The doctors repeatedly bled her, as was the habit in those days, and probably hastened her death.

Mozart wrote home to his father telling him that she was seriously ill.  He then wrote to a friend to go to his father to break the news gently to him of his wife's death.  During this time, Mozart wrote the famous A-minor piano sonata.  This sonata is associated with the pain and turbulence of his mother's death, although the actual date of composition is not known.  Mozart failed in his struggle for recognition in Paris.  He complained to his father that they took him for a beginner, 'except for the real musicians.'  He tried to avoid going back home to Salzburg, and his letters are full of disdain for the lack of opportunity for him there.  He returned to Aloysia, but in the end lost her as well.  He dreaded the reception he might receive from his father when he returned to Salzburg.

Chapter 5--Salzburg, 1773-1777

Archbishop Colloredo instituted a purge of inessential and ornamental elements in religious practice.  He implimented simpler services in the cathedral, shorter musical settings of the Mass.  He still required music for other purposes, however.  Mozart's wind divertimentos were most likely table music for the Archbishop.  The Archbishop gave Mozart little to do, but did award him an honorary title of Konzertmeister.  The family enjoyed more money of a salary of 150 gulden.  The Archbishop did not give his employees freedom to travel other than within his own entourage, but during his absence, Leopold and Mozart went back to Vienna.  The six string quartets he composed on this trip were not near Joseph Haydn's but were influenced by the great composer.  He continued to write symphonies and other works along the way. 

1774 was spent almost entirely at home in Salzburg.  During this stay, he wrote symphonies, short masses, chamber music for various ensembles.  During the first eight months of the year, he developed an individuality of style, which in due course acquired a reputation for being difficult.  His best music was not written for his employer.

At the end of the year, he and his father returned to Munich to present an opera buffa.  For a time, Nannerl joined them and was present for the premier.  Although this opera is considered the first of his mature operas, it was not the best of this genre.  That would come later.  The rest of 1775 were much like 1774.  As a result, Mozart's thoughts again returned to escape.  Still too young to travel on his own, too old to be considered a child prodigy, there weren't many options for him.

Finally, in 1777, the Mozarts asked permission to leave again.  They had already asked once, and the Archbishop ignored their request.  The letter reminded the Archbishop that the Gospel requires us to use our talents well, and that a few years ago (during their visit to Vienna) he had 'graciously declared that I had nothing to hope for in Salzburg'.  After allowing the Mozarts to wait for an answer, the Archbishop sent a letter on the 28th of August to instruct his manager of human resources to tell father and son, 'in the name of the Gospel', that they were both fired.

Using Pop Culture to Teach Information Literacy: Methods to Engage a New Generation by Linda D. Behen

Chapters 7, 8 & 9

This section outlines specific programs that incorporate pop culture.  She begins with assignments, games, and prizes all based on reality TV programs such as "Survivor" and "The Amazing Race" television series.  The students enjoyed the competition and did seem to be gaining information literacy skills as well.  Examples of the assignment cards are provided.  She then explains using game show formats and movies to teach as well, also providing examples and outlining her program.  The final section of the book gives practical suggestions on publicizing the programs to garner support and enthusiasm.  She gives tips on what worked in her situation.

Using Pop Culture to Teach Information Literacy: Methods to Engage a New Generation by Linda D. Behen

Chapters 5 & 6

Using Pop Culture to Teach Information Literacy: Methods to Engage a New Generation by Linda D. Behen

Chapters 3 & 4

The aim of this section is to find ways to engage students and to learn about them and from them by observing their interests and habits.  Make the library media center an inviting place.  Service should be top priority.  Try to purchase fiction titles that students request.  Weed often.  Listen to student tips for searching and pass those tips along to other students.  Chapter 4 ends with the following suggestions to engage and interest students:  coffee house, poetry slams, quote of the day, lunch chats, tea times, contests, book clubs, book making workshop, parents' night, and used book sale.  Behen says the goal is to make libraries relevant to students' lives.

Chapter Three--Italy and Salzburg, 1769-1773

Mozart and his father left for Italy in December of 1769.  The first concert was in Verona at the end of 1769 where the Austrian Govenor, Count Firmian, commissioned Mozart to write an opera for the next Carnival which was between Christmas and Lent.  Mozart was not able to get to the composition at this time.  He and his father went on to Rome.  In Rome, Mozart notated from memory the music of Allegri's 'Miserere", a closely guarded secret of the Sistene chapel.  They went on to Naples and then back to Rome.  While in Rome, the pope created him a Knight of the Golden Spur.  He still was not able to start the opera that had been commissioned.  However, after many concerts and public appearances in Italy, he returned to Salzburg in March, 1773, a recognised maestro, skilled on keyboard and violin, and an experienced composer with the necessary equipment to bea Kapellmeister.  He was barely seventeen, and therefore unemployable.

Chapter 4--Opera Seria

Mozart's first opera, Apollo et Hyacinthus, marked no great advance, but it confirmed his ability to simulate human emotions into his writing.  He also wrote comedies, but the bulk of his early operatic compositions were of the opera seria genre.  However, his comedies overshadowed his serious operas.  They are the ones most popular today.  This chapter tells of the different operas he wrote in the earlier years.

Chapter Two--Works by an 'almost supernatural talent'

Mozart's talent was first evident in keyboard playing and sight-reading, then in improvisation, and composition.  Composition began with improvisation, followed by repetition to fix pieces sufficiently for his father to take them down.  The earliest music imitate the music Leopold had written for Nannerl's lessons.  The two-part texture made them playable for tiny hands.

He first began composing the shorter dance forms of the galant style of the day.  There is no question of originality.  We will never know to what extent Leopold adjusted what his son played to conform to standard.  His first piece was in binary form, Allegro K. 3, which was written when he was six.  His first symphony, K. 16, was written in 1764--he was only eight years old!  The rest of this chapter shows bits of each of the early compositions and shows how Mozart developed these forms and styles as he progressed and matured as a musician.

As with most biographies, if not all, Rushton begins with the early years.  Chapter 1 is titled, "Salzburg and the Grand Tour:  1756-1769."  Mozart's father was Johann Georg Leopold Mozart.  He was born in Augsburg, Bavaria, in November 1719.  His mother was Anna Maria Walburga Pertl.  They had seven children, but the first to survive infancy was the fourth child, Maria Anna Walburga Ignatia, known as Nannerl.  She was a gifted musician, and her importance in inspiring her younger brother by example was great.  When the family first went abroad, Nannerl was the keyboard prodigy.  As an adult, she played and taught, but as a female, she was very limited to domestic responsibilities.  If Wolfgang had died as a baby, she might have had a very different lot in life.  We have lost her compositions, unfortunately.  We know that she did compose, because we have a letter from Wolfgang praising a song she'd written and encouraging her to write more.

Wolfgang was the seventh child and second to survive.  He was born on January 27, 1756.  His name at his baptism was Joannes Chrysostomus Wolfgangus Theophilus.  He didn't use the first two names.  Instead of Theophilus, Mozart used the German equivalent, Gottlieb, and more often, the Italian equivalent, Amadeo, Amade, rarely the Latin Amadeus.  In early publications he is J.G., J.G.W., A. or A.W. Mozart.  We think of him as an Austrian composer, but he counted himself as a German composer.  Through his father, Mozart formed a network of associations with minor nobility that served him well.  It was Count Schrattenbach who allowed Leopold to travel abroad with his children.

Mozart was truly a child prodigy.  His early success carried a penalty:  even at the age of twenty-two, he complained that he was treated as a child.  Leopold's upbringing enforced a childish dependence that he was reluctant to let his son escape.  As Nannerl was taking lessons, Wolfgang of course wanted to learn.  Music written by their father for her lessons are marked with 'Wolfgangerl' on them to show that he had learned them by age 4.  His earliest compositions are in Leopold's manuscript.  Not only was Mozart a pianist, but also a violinist, and during the family's stay in London, he took singing lessons.  He sang in public with a small voice, but in perfect taste.  His voice broke during the first visit to Italy when he was fourteen.  He learned to understand wind instruments and his compositions for them are some of his finest. 

During their travels, Leopold's aim was to show the children to the world.  By today's standards, we might think of this as exploitation.  However, Leopold's motivation was his duty to show the world what his children could do.  He continued their education throughout their travels.  The schedule, however, was exhausting for the children, and they were often unwell as a result.  When Wolfgang was six, he of course didn't understand class distinctions and was dandled on the Imperial knee of Maria Theresia, and he proposed marriage to Archduchess Maria Antonia, who was later queen of France.

The next trip lasted for three years.  First to Munich, then to Augsburg, Stuttgart, Ludwigsberg, and Schwetzingen, the children traveled and performed.  They moved on from there to Paris for te winer.  They did not care for French music, but had to stay in France until spring when they could cross to England.  They reached London where they stayed for fifteen months.  By this time, Wolfgang's gifts in sight-reading, improvisation, and composition were better than Nannerl's.  All of Leopold's letters are full with "our all-powerful Wolfgang." 

By the time they returned to Salzburg in 1766-67, Wolfgang had been transformed into a professional musician, which amazed everyone.  They were not long in Salzburg, however, for they set off to Vienna where they frequented the opera.  Joseph was now Holy Roman Emperor and ruled Austria jointly with his mother.  He was to be by far Mozart's most important Imperial patron.  Joseph II had invited Wolfgang to write an opera.  The opera was rejected by the theatre administrator.  Malicious rumors were spread that Leopold had written the opera for the child.  Wolfgang refuted the rumors by serenly writing another opera.  The family returned to Salzburg after being away for fifteen months.  In 1769, Mozart composed incessantly to fulfil the requirements of court and city. 

Using Pop Culture to Teach Information Literacy: Methods to Engage a New Generation by Linda D. Behen

Chapters 2 & 3

Because students want instant gratification, teachers and library media specialists need to help students succeed in locating information via academic databases; otherwise they will revert to Googling.  The author gives ideas on how to teach students to discern worthwhile, accurate information without wasting time, by using information literacy models like the Big6, and by completing evaluation sheets on each website they use to help them learn to discriminate.  Games and other activities are great, but only if there is a plan and structure to them, so that students go beyond information hunting and gathering and on to good critical-thinking skills.  There are several tips on locating and using appropriate pop culture like movies, music, sports, games, and reality television.

Using Pop Culture to Teach Information Literacy: Methods to Engage a New Generation by Linda D. Behen

Introduction & Chapter 1

Behen is a school librarian in a Catholic academy in Cincinnati.  She seeks to pull students into her realm by staying informed about teen interests.  She notes that times and students continue to change, and suggests that many adults eventually succumb to newer ideas that teens embrace first.  She refuses to blame teen problems on pop culture and reminds the readers that pop culture used to be "dime novels, comic books, jazz music, tight jeans and ducktails, rock-and-roll movie, etc" at one time or another, insisting that pop culture partly defines each generation.  Behen chooses to use fads to help engage students in learning.

Chapter 7--The Master

The last decade of his life, Beethoven continued to write some of his most glorious music, but at the same time, he became increasingly disordered in his personal habits and in his household.  He had a growing vindictiveness that was truly hard on his family and the household servants (who often quit).  He began to fight for custody of his nephew, as a way of getting back at his sister-in-law, Johanna.  When his brother, Carl, died, Beethoven informed the police that his brother had been poisoned.  During the inquest, he took care of young Carl, and then filed suit, claiming that Johanna was an unfit mother.  He actually won custody of his nephew, but the two were never close.  Beethoven was a poor guardian.  He neglected the boy and expected him to live up to impossible standards.  The boy tried to commit suicide, the strain was so great on him.  Beethoven would go from one extreme to the other--from affection to beatings.  The boy became a chronic liar to survive life with Beethoven.

During this time, Beethoven was writing his Missa Solemnis.  This mass is long and is very difficult to sing!  Beautiful music!  With the ninth symphony, something he developed over ten long years, his composing reached its greatest heights.  Beethoven's health continued to decline.  Although he had hidden his loss of hearing for years, it became more and more apparent to the public.  In 1822, he insisted on conducting a rehearsal of Fidelio,  until orchestra and singers were in total chaos.  No one dared to stop.  He was unaware of the chaos.  His friend, Schindler, passed him a note which said, "Please do not go on; more at home."  Beethoven immediately understood what had happened.  He immediately left the hall in embarrassment.   He was deeply depressed.  He continued to struggle with his relationship with his nephew, and when he returned to Vienna with him, it was a damp, cold journey.  On his arrival, Beethoven fell ill and began to cough up blood.  The pneumonia responded to treatment, but then he contracted dropsy.  He probably was already suffering from jaundice.  This became worse.  His body swelled so grotesquely that his stomach had to be bandaged, and he turned yellow.  A doctor repeatedly punctured his stomach to draw off the accumulated water.  Sweat baths, ice compresses, and frozen punch were prescribed.  He drank too much of the punch and suffered a relapse.  He had begun talking about a tenth symphony, but was never able to compose it.

On March 26, there was a violent storm outside, with crashing thunder and flashing lightning.  It is said that Beethoven sat up and shook his fist into the air as he drew his last breath.  He died just before 6 p.m.  Locks of his hair were cut off to save as souvenirs.  Twenty thousand people attended Beethoven's funeral.  He was buried on March 29, 1827, at St. Stephen's Cathedral.

Chapter 6--The Middle Years

Most historians divide Beethoven's life and compositions into three sections:  The Early Years, The Middle Years, and The Late Years.  During the middle years, he wrote operas, continued to compose sonatas, symphonies, and many works.  Fidelio was an opera he composed.  This composition spans nearly the entire middle period of his life.   Symphonies 3-8 were written during this time, the violin concerto, the 3rd-5th piano concertos, five string quartets, and more than a dozen piano sonatas.  Eroica was his first programmed symphony because of the second movement, the Funeral March.  The fifth is probably his most famous, and the sixth was the Pastoral, written with sounds of birds in the instruments and other programmatic characteristics. 

Beethoven moved away from Vienna in 1809 to become first Kappellmeister to Jerome Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's brothers.  However, instead of moving to Cassel in Germany, he was persuaded to move back to Vienna by Countess Erdoddy.  She asked him to write down his terms, something that would never have happened in Mozart's day.  He asked for a lifelong annuity and other conditions.  She complied and he moved.  During this time, he fell in love with Therese Malfatti.  He was even concerned about his appearance during this time of love.  He wanted to marry Therese but she turned him down because he didn't have the status of an aristocrat.  We do have letters he wrote to an "immortal beloved" but we do not know who she was. 

Chapter 4--A Musical Revolutionary

With his hearing loss, Beethoven began to play less and compose more.  Imagine not having some of the music he wrote had his hearing not failed!  Although he began in the Classical Period, which went from around 1750-1820, music began to change as Beethoven continued to compose.  The rising middle class began to change society's view of station in life, and Beethoven began changing how music was written.  During this time, the pianoforte was written to accomodate the large concert halls.  The harpsichord and clavichord were simply not loud enough.  Beethoven wrote sonatas for the pianoforte, and began to change the form and style of symphonies as he wrote.  His first symphony was written in the classical style and form, but by the ninth symphony, much had evolved.  The third was dedicated to Napoleon, who was at the time, Beethoven's hero.  However, at a later date, Beethoven changed the dedication as he became disappointed in Napoleon.  Upon learning that Napoleon had crowned himself emporer, Beethoven was said to have flown into a rage and to have torn the title page from the symphony and flung it on the floor.  He later wrote a new title page which was simply to "celebrate the memory of a great man."

Beethoven was a genius as a composer, but otherwise was a man of average intelligence.  He was often only writing cliches--nothing interesting.  He was often violent, and was infamously a slob.  He wrote on walls, and left food rotting in his room, along with a full chamber pot, for days on end.  EWW!!!  He was mistaken for a street person and arrested by Napoleon's men, until he was later identified as Beethoven.

The metronome was invented in Beethoven's day.  I have heard that it was invented for him to aid him in his hearing loss.  He included metronome markings in his music.  He must have seen the value of such an instrument.

Chapter 3--Virtuoso in Vienna

Beethoven went to Vienna to study with Franz Joseph Haydn.  The lessons did not go well.  He was a gentle, polite, court composer of the old school--the opposite of Beethoven.  The two just were so very different.  Beethoven continued to work his way through society. He had horrid manners.  He had little patience for mediocrity.  He talked aloud when someone else was performing, or flipped pages of his own score loudly.  However, he was known to storm out of a performance because someone was whispering in the audience.  Notwithstanding his deplorable manners, he soon was a part of a wide circle of friends among the aristocracy.  It was for some of these patrons that he wrote some of his most difficult pieces of music.  His talent was the reason for his success in Vienna, not his personality.  People gathered around him, competed for his attention, and even seemed to wish to be insulted by him.  He used people, and everyone knew it.  Although he was usually in love, he never seemed to convince any of the ladies to marry him.  I suppose they knew his stormy temperament would make him a terrible husband. 

During this time, Beethoven was famous mostly for his virtuoso playing of the piano.  He did not have a delicate touch, like Mozart or Haydn, however.  His compositions were full of driving rhythms and vigor.  His playing was indeed stormy.

It was probably in 1798 that Beethoven began to notice that his hearing was deteriorating.  For three years, he appears to think of it as a temporary condition.  In 1801, however, he began to mention his hearing loss from time to time in his letters.  He was quite distraught with the malady--it drove him to depression.  He went from doctor to doctor, trying to find a remedy.  In fact, at one point, he was hoping that Luigi Galvani would be able to use electric shock to bring back his hearing.  It became apparent, however, that nothing could be done.  At this point, Beethoven contemplated suicide.

Chapter 2--A Second Mozart?

During his days as a court musician, Beethoven emerged as a virtuoso pianist.  He still had no more polish than he had as a youth.  He maintained a total disregard for rank.  Nobody was his better.  He was sixteen in 1787, and was very independent and confident.  He was almost always in love.

Outside of Bonn, however, no one had heard of Beethoven.  It was in 1787 that Mozart was living in Vienna.  He was thirty-one.  He represented music genius to music society.  Beethoven was taken to play for Mozart.  The event was described by Mozart's friend and biographer.  Mozart was said to have assumed Beethoven played a piece that had been prepared especially for this performance.  He was not that impressed until Beethoven begged him to give him a theme to improvise.  It is said that Mozart's response after the improvisation was:  "Keep your eyes on him; some day he will give the world something to talk about."  (I think he truly did!)  We don't know whether or not Beethoven took some lessons with Mozart, but soon thereafter received letters from Bonn telling him that his mother was ill.  Beethoven went back to Bonn to see to his mother and his brothers.  He arrrived in Bonn barely in time to see his mother die, and saw that his father was reduced to selling some of the family belongings and pawning others to bury her.    Beethoven was saddened by his mother's passing, but now had huge responsibilities on him.  He had to deal with his drunken father, his two younger siblings who were untalented, poverty, and a supremely demanding profession.

After Beethoven's mother died, his father basically let himself go to drink.  He no longer functioned as a father or as a musician.  Beethoven taught some lessons to help make ends meet, and even had begun composing for his students.  However, he seemed disinterested in publishing his work at this time.  Mozart passed away during this time.  His style of writing was being left behind as life took society toward the day of Napoleon.  Beethoven's personaltiy would prove perfect for the age.

Chapter 1--The Beethovens of Bonn

 Ludwig van Beethoven was born in Bonn, Germany,  on December 16, 1770.  Mozart was already a prolific composer of 14 years.  Beethoven was born into a poor family, and he lived most of his youth in an upstairs apartment with his parents and his two brothers.  Beethoven was short for his age, but was stocky.  His head was a bit too large for the rest of his body.  He had small eyes, a broad nose, and was swarthy in complexion.  Beethoven's grandfather, Louis Beethoven was a church musician.  Music was important in Bonn, and the Prince Elector love music so much that he is said to have died from too much dancing.   Beethoven's grandfather was chief musician to the court.  Most chief musicians were composers, but Louis was not.  

Louis' son, Johann, was married to Magdalena Kewerich.   At first they were very happy, but in later years, Johann became a drunk.  However, he was ambitious for his sons and he idealized Leopold Mozart, the father of the child prodigy, and set out to teach his son in order that he too might become famous.  Ludwig began to learn to play the pianoforte at the age of four;  his father was his first teacher.  In 1778, Ludwig was to give a concert in Bonn.  Johann misrepresented Ludwig as being two years younger than he actually was.  There is no review of this concert.  He probably didn't give a great performance.

The family fortunes dropped to a low.  Magdalena even had to sell some of her clothes to pay her husband's rising drinking debts.  Desparate to make his son famous, Johann brought Ludwig to the court to apply for a position.  He was not given a salary, but Beethoven was allowed to play  in some of the musical events, including violin.  This exposure helped to develop his education in music.

Soon thereafter, Beethoven was discovered by Neefe, who became his teacher.  We know little about Beethoven's life during this time, so it probably was relatively routine.  He despised the Court, and had no patience with courtly manners and never believed that princes had the right to rule other men.